The Taekwondo Movement and its Role in Korea’s Globalization

                From the time of the Goguryeo kingdom (37 BCE- 668 AD), when royal tombs were decorated with murals of figures in unarmed combat and guarded by statues of ancient warriors, martial arts have played a prominent role in Korean society. Historians have traced the evolution of Korea’s martial arts from this era, in which ancient forms such as subak and taekkyeon were practiced, to the mid-20^th century, when modern taekwondo was formed. In 1971, taekwondo was designated Korea’s national sport, a decision that revealed its importance to the Korean culture and the Korean national identity. Since then, taekwondo has been recognized as the world’s most popular martial art. The incredible growth and worldwide popularity that taekwondo has experienced in the past 40 years has drawn international interest to the Korean peninsula. This was notably the case in the 1988 Seoul Olympics, and in the work of the Kukkiwon demonstration team as an ambassador of Korean culture. The spread of taekwondo has led to the spread of Korean culture and to increased awareness of the small country of Korea, long overshadowed by its giant neighbors in the far Eastern corner of Asia. More than just a competitive sport, taekwondo has helped in the globalization of the Korean culture, and in the redefinition of Korea’s role as a leading member of the international community.

The origin of Korean martial arts: hwarang warriors

The taekwondo movement first appeared on the Korean peninsula long before the development of taekwondo, with the rise of the hwarang warriors. Though not solely a military group, these young men became expert martial artists in Korean forms such as subak, and would later prove instrumental in the unification of the three kingdoms under the leadership of the Silla kingdom (Lazore). Much of the scholarly work about the hwarang, however, emphasizes not only their military prowess and skill in martial arts, but their close ties to Korea’s religious institutions (Lazore). While the hwarang curricula itself was based loosely on Korea’s ancient religions, a defining characteristic of the hwarang was their unfailing loyalty to the “Five Codes of Human Conduct.” These commandments were similar in concept to the Confucian and Buddhist ideals that were prominent among the elite in the Silla dynasty; a member of the hwarang exemplified qualities such as “humanity, justice, and courage,” while pledging “loyalty to his king, and filial love toward his parents,” laws which bring to mind the strict hierarchical relationships in Confucianism (Lazore). The reputation of the hwarang as devout religious seekers led some members to be regarded as incarnations of the Maitreya, the buddha who was supposed to “demonstrate the path of virtue” to humans in the future (“Who is Maitreya Buddha”). Due to the uprightness of the hwarang, the group’s diverse knowledge of fields such as religion, politics, and martial arts became an element of their virtuosity, and was tied into the image of the hwarang as “ideal leaders” who had attained the highest level in “traditional values, ethical and moral standards, fighting, and religion” (Lazore). The religious practices of the hwarang can easily be compared to those of the Shaolin monks, who similarly used kung fu and applied the martial philosophy in their spiritual practice. The hwarang are essential to any discussion of Korea’s martial arts history due to the role they played in uniting Korea’s martial arts philosophy with its religious culture, granting greater cultural significance and meaning to arts like subak.

Furthermore, martial arts like subak and later taekkyeon were frequently the subjects in Korean traditional art, demonstrating both the commonality of martial arts tournaments in Korean culture, in addition to the perception of these arts as not just a common pastime, but a beautiful tradition to be preserved and glorified for posterity. As early as the Goguryeo dynasty (37 BC- 668 AD), the Muyong-chong and Kalchuchong royal tombs were decorated with intricate murals of figures in armed and unarmed combat, supposedly practicing early forms of subak. These fighters were “meant to protect and amuse the buried king,” hinting at the popularity of martial arts for both recreation and defense in this early era (“History of Taekkyon”). One of the most famous Korean paintings from the 18^th century—Korea’s Joseon dynasty—depicts a taekkyeon sparring match in the royal palace (“Origins of Taekkyon”). This painting portrays peasants, scholars, and government officials thronging together in the audience, entranced by the intensity of the tournament. This scene would have been highly unusual in Joseon’s rigidly hierarchical society; however, in the absence of written records on martial arts practice in the Joseon era, such paintings provide insight into the importance of martial arts to Korean culture, as a tradition that was enjoyed by, and could potentially unite, Koreans from all classes.

Fascinated by the rich culture and diverse traditions celebrated by the Korean people, American anthropologist Stewart Culin published a book titled Korean Games after a tour through Korea in 1895 (Capener). Images of taekkyeon tournaments were heavily featured in the book, suggesting that Korean martial arts were practiced throughout the Korean peninsula, and that these arts had great significance to the Korean people, something even a foreigner was able to identify. The importance of martial arts to the Korean people, and its place as a tradition representative of Korea’s culture therefore set the precedent for the development of Korea’s newest martial art--taekwondo.

The birth of global taekwondo in the lead-up to the Seoul Olympics

Immediately following Korea’s independence from Japanese Occupational rule, five different branches of martial arts sprang up in Korean society (Capener). After 36 years of “re-education” under the Japanese, in which the Korean people were forced to think of themselves as “passive,” and “coming from a tradition without a fighting spirit,” many Koreans turned to the traditional martial arts such as taekkyeon as a means of re-discovering their national identity and declaring their sovereignty (Harmon 22). The martial arts practiced in these years were similar to traditional Korean martial arts, with some influence from the styles of neighboring countries (22). Starting in the 1950s, however, the leaders of the separate kwans or schools of martial arts came together in order to standardize Korea’s fighting styles. Through their efforts, taekwondo—the art of the hand and foot—was born. From its inception, this new martial art was different from previous ones in its more international appeal; the International Taekwondo Federation (ITF) and World Taekwondo Federation (WTF), the first taekwondo organizations with branches in other countries, declared as their mission the “promotion of taekwondo outside Korea” and “the expansion and improvement of worldwide taekwondo” (Capener). By the early 1990s, taekwondo had become affiliated with 19 different regional and international tournaments in the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia (“World Taekwondo Federation”). However, this did not mean that taekwondo had strayed from the philosophy that characterized Korea’s former martial arts. On the contrary, taekwondo philosophy was imbued with much of the same spirit that had been present in the martial code of the subak-practicing hwarang warriors; in the official World Taekwondo Federation website, the taekwondo philosophy is suggested to be hongik-ingan, meaning the “universal wellbeing of mankind.” The International Taekwondo Federation similarly references every taekwondo practitioner’s duty to strive to “build a more peaceful world,” and to champion the causes of “freedom” and “justice” (International Taekwondo Federation). As a tradition rooted in the Korean culture and yet aimed at a broader audience, the global spread of taekwondo has been closely connected to Korea’s own path toward globalization. 

When the nascent World Taekwondo Federation and International Taekwondo Federation first began teaching taekwondo overseas, they were acting contrary to the sporting environment in Korea, where the competition level was “quite low” and its goals “quite humble” (Sanfilippo).  Though taekwondo continued to spread through organizations like the Pan-American Taekwondo Union and tournaments like the 1^st European Taekwondo Championships, even becoming an Olympic sport in 1980, Korea was still considered a minor player in international sports competitions. Many nations in the Olympic Movement were thus surprised when Korea announced its bid to host the 1988 Summer Olympics; when the country managed to trounce more experienced contenders such as Japan and Canada to be elected as the host nation, the decision “stunned the Olympic world” (“Report on Planning and Organization”). While a confluence of factors finally contributed to Korea’s success, it is very likely that the country’s founding and management of a globally-practiced martial art formed the base on which its bid was established. According to the Official Report on Planning and Organization, the Secretary-General of the World Taekwondo Federation, Lee Kum-hong, spent the final few months before the decision was made, “tour[ing] North and Central America” and leading European nations, to lend his support to Korea’s campaign. In its released summary of the preparation period, the Korean government speculated that the global connections of the WTF president were the reason why many IOC members “began to show interest in Seoul” as a host city. The 1988 Seoul Olympics were undoubtedly a great boost to Korea’s sports, leading to improved facilities and training programs, but they also ignited Korea’s globalization, as Korea experienced increased global trade, foreign investments, and cultural exchange in the years following the Games (Sanfilipo). Ultimately, the wide recognition of taekwondo as an Olympic sport brought Korea—as a new member of the Olympic movement—the publicity and connections necessary to host an Olympic Games, an event that was hugely influential in Korea’s globalization, and to gain greater representation in and the respect of the entire sporting community.

Taekwondo as an ambassador for the Korean culture

With the Seoul Olympics as a starting point, the globalization of Korean culture, society, and economy has depended in part on the global network of taekwondo, in which taekwondo masters have acted as highly successful ambassadors for the Korean culture. In this movement, none have been more effective than taekwondo masters in groups such as the Kukkiwon demonstration team, which has travelled to over 100 countries since its foundation in 1974. In the UK, one such performance by the Kukkiwon team inspired a local blogger to write that the Kukkiwon members had “surpassed their human limits [during the demonstration]” and met with “thundering applause” (Han). However, this appreciation and the overwhelming interest in the team have been directed not only at the members’ taekwondo abilities, but the message they deliver as representatives of Korean cultural arts. After one such demonstration in Maryland, the students of a local taekwondo school were inspired to take trips to the closest Korean Cultural Center, to explore exhibits on Korean culture, traditions, and the history of the Korea-US Alliance (Citro). In an interview, the students’ taekwondo instructor expressed great pride at the “love…for Korea and its famous martial art,” that had been inspired by the demonstration and taekwondo training, and the students’ subsequent “eager[ness] to visit Korea even once in their lifetime” (Citro).

Recognizing the great role that taekwondo has had in stimulating Korea’s globalization, and improving its image as seen by other nations, the Korea government has recently begun to support the work of taekwondo masters abroad, encouraging them to expand their activities to promote the Korean culture. In 2009, the Presidential Council on Nation Branding summarized its efforts as part of then-President Lee’s global public relations campaign for Korea. In addition to “sending more taekwondo performance teams abroad,” the plan has entailed the development of “taekwondo-related [media],” and release of an “online taekwondo manual” (Kim 126). As the purported goal of the council was to “increase [Korea’s] soft power,” taekwondo has been an invaluable medium through which the Korean government has been able to replace any western views of “South Korea as less relevant or important,” relative to its neighbors, with images of the taekwondo philosophy being carried out around the world (129). By facilitating and enhancing the spread of taekwondo as a key component in Korea’s public relations campaign, the Korean government has taken advantage of the trend started by the Kukkiwon team, using the martial art as a representation of Korea historically and in modern times, to help the Korean culture gain visibility in the global community. One method through which the Korean government has attempted to do this is by sending taekwondo instructors in missions to underdeveloped nations. In 2011, one such troop of Korean soldiers was sent to Haiti with the task of teaching basic taekwondo skills, and “introducing Korean culture through songs and dances” to local youth (“A Korean Legacy in Leogane: Taekwondo”). Though the troop also worked for UN construction projects in the area, the Korean culture classes had a lasting impact on the Haitian youth, as many students later expressed gratitude to the soldiers for “sharing their knowledge of a discipline” that unites “self-defense” and “meditation” (“A Korean Legacy in Leogane: Taekwondo”). As taekwondo has readily come to be accepted as a true symbol of Korea, the good works of taekwondo masters worldwide, completed in accordance with the taekwondo philosophy, have inadvertently begun to shape international perceptions of Korea in its global engagements.

The taekwondo spirit as the Korean spirit

The role that taekwondo masters played, as ambassadors of Korean culture, in Korea’s Olympic bid has already been widely acknowledged by the Korean government; yet the influence of the taekwondo philosophy in determining the tone of the Olympics is a critical but often overlooked aspect of this event. In the lead-up to the games, the Korean government declared the Seoul Olympics first and foremost a venue for international dialogue, establishing three of the five main goals of the event toward the fulfillment of a global agenda (“Report on Planning and Organization”). This agenda included showing “compassion”—the Seoul Games were the first to occur almost parallel to the Paralympics, granting equal importance to disabled athletes—and paving the way for “future legacy”—Korea’s successful hosting of the event was meant to “inspire courage in developing countries… towards national development” (“Report on Planning and Organization”). Especially in recent years, the Olympics have become known as a commercial venture and gambit for the hosting nation (for instance, the 2008 Beijing Olympics was solely focused on presenting Beijing and its citizens in the best possible light), so many countries were perplexed by the extent of Korea’s externally focused-goals (“Official Report of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games”). However, the reasoning behind this decision is made evident by a brief examination of the Korean culture, especially in its connection to martial arts philosophy. Since the reign of the Silla hwarang warriors, the ideal person in Korean society had been one who sacrificed himself for the achievement of peace among one’s friends, and demonstrated goodness and virtue. This ideal has continued into the modern day, with current taekwondo schools placing similar emphasis on the moral philosophy of inducing peace. Likewise, in the Official Report on the Seoul Olympics, the Planning Committee attests to “Korea’s orientation toward peace,” and the “excellence of traditional Korean culture,” as important factors in the Olympics planning process. To a certain extent then, it was the beliefs of Korean martial artists, which contributed to the nation’s “peace-oriented” values that would motivate Koreans to plan their first Olympics with a beneficent agenda.

Since then, the taekwondo philosophy promoted and practiced by taekwondo athletes worldwide has become a central part of Korea’s global image; for instance, taekwondo athletes in countries that suffer from gender inequality, such as Tajikistan, have been at the helm of the movement for social justice. Members of the NTKF (National Taekwondo and Kickboxing Federation of Tajikistan) have ardently spoken out to “advance the rights and equality of women” in Tajikistan—a country that historically did not provide women legal protection against domestic violence—through presentations and by encouraging women to learn taekwondo as a means of self-defense (Boboev). While a draft law abolishing this practice was adopted in 2012, taekwondo schools remain a refuge for Tajikistani women, a place where all athletes are considered equal, and the determination to advocate for social equity is instilled in every practitioner. Taking into consideration the previously discussed work of taekwondo instructors in communities in Haiti, it is clear that the athletes for this martial art have become champions for social minorities, and supported movements for the “universal wellbeing of mankind.” As these taekwondo masters have begun to truly taken on the role of cultural ambassadors for Korea, the worldwide image of Korea has come to encompass such movements for social advocacy, and Korea has, in turn, incorporated this advocacy in its own global activities, notably as discussed in the humanitarian focus of the Seoul Olympics.

With its ties to the taekwondo movement and adoption of the philosophy, Korea has gained the opportunity to work closely with international bodies such as the United Nations, for the achievement of shared international goals. In 2013, in recognition of the work of the taekwondo peace corps, and the World Para-Taekwondo Championships, the United Nations Office of Sports and Development Program (UNOSDP) signed a memorandum with the World Taekwondo Federation, promising to work towards “common objectives… promot[ing] sport-for-all and peace” (“UN Special Advisor”). While this agreement made taekwondo a unique tool in the achievement of the goals of the UN, it concurrently opened the door for collaboration between Korea and the UNOSDP. As the headquarters of the WTF, South Korea was invited to host the UNOSDP’s flagship project, the bi-annual Youth Leadership Program, three times, more than any other nation. In the past two years, this program has provided youth leaders from over 20 different nations the opportunity to exercise their leadership abilities and become initiators of international exchange by engaging in sports with other globally-minded youth. The partnership between the international institution of taekwondo and bodies like the United Nations has thus conveyed on Korea the chance to nurture future world leaders, and gain an image as a nation conducive to international exchange. Had it not been for the fortitude of taekwondo masters to battle injustice in countries like Tajikistan, or the appraisal of world taekwondo leagues as a force for global change, it is unlikely that Korea would be in the position it is today, as an invaluable partner to the UN and a firm proponent of social acceptance.  

Conclusion

Considering the dual role of the hwarang warriors as military leaders and religious seekers, and the worldwide presence of taekwondo instructors, it is evident that martial arts not only have influenced Korean society throughout history, but also have represented the globally influential Korean culture. The development of taekwondo reinforced the importance of Korean martial arts, and it quickly became an ambassador of the Korean culture, granting the country greater power to move the international sporting community, and the opportunity to host monumental events such as the Seoul Olympics. These events globalized Korea’s economy and society. Taekwondo masters have played critical roles of representing Korean culture and advocating social equality and worldwide development. Consequently, they had a profound impact on Korea’s image, and also promoted the country’s position in international engagements. In order to understand current Korea in the world, it is critical to recognize the importance of its martial arts culture, and the philosophy underlining taekwondo.

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