ITTY-BITTY GRAMMAR
DEFINITE & INDEFINITE ARTICLES
(“the,” “a,” & “an”)
Working Definitions
·
Definite articles: “the” (a word used before a
singular or plural noun to indicate specificity)
·
Indefinite articles: “a” or “an” (a word before
a singular noun to indicate a general reference)
Using the definite
article
·
Proper nouns: For nouns that refer to a unique
person, place, or thing (only one exists in the world), use “the” to
demonstrate this quality. (In English, proper nouns are typically capitalized)
§
I visited the Blue House in April; while
I was there, I learned a lot about US-Korea relations.
o
NOTE: “The” is typically not used when referring
to the name of an organization, company or group.
§
Amnesty International is an international
organization that fights for human rights.
§
I am interning for KEMS-TV this
summer—they are producing a documentary about Korean street food.
·
Specific nouns: For nouns that refer to one
particular person, place or thing among a large group, use “the” to emphasize
that you are referring to one specific entity.
§
During the lecture, the American history
professor walked back and forth, waving his arms dramatically. (Although
there are many American history professors in the world, the writer refers to
one of them specifically, likely his own professor.)
§
To receive an A in the class, I need to
try harder on my in-class essays and exams for the rest of the semester. (This
sentence is specific to the particular class that the writer mentions.)
o
In this context, “the” is often used to
emphasize a noun that your reader already knows about or to indicate that you
are referring to a noun that was previously-mentioned.
§
The dinner party will take place in front of
the school cafeteria. I can come by at 10:00am and help set up the food area. (By using
“the” in the second sentence, the writer indicates that he is talking about the
eating place he mentioned in the first sentence. There is a “the” in front of
“school cafeteria,” because the writer refers to a specific cafeteria that both
he and the reader know about.)
o
NOTE: When referencing the name of a person, do
not include the article.
§
During the lecture, Professor Alan walked
back and forth, waving his arms dramatically.
§
Today’s lecture focused on King Gwanggaeto
the Great, one of the most renowned rulers of the Goguryeo Dynasty.
Using the
indefinite article
·
“a” vs. “an”
o
For nouns that begin with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u)
and are written with the indefinite article, use “an” instead of “a” to
introduce the word.
§
An apple, an Android phone, an emergency call
o
When pronouncing a word, this makes it much
easier to distinguish between the article and the actual noun.
§
NOTE: If the word begins with “eu” (European,
eulogy) or the letter “u,” pronounced as “you” (universe, unicorn), use the
indefinite article “a”
·
General nouns: For singular nouns that refer to
a general person, place, or thing, use “a” instead of “the.”
o
We are making a documentary about a Korean-American
who raises awareness about his native country in the US. (There are many
Korea-Americans who potentially fit this description. Also, the writer’s goal
is to discuss the documentary and its subject generally, without revealing
specific details.)
o
I work as an English translator at my
school every Saturday. (The writer identifies himself as one of the many
English translators in the world member. The writer may also be implying that
there is more than one English translator at the school.)
o
I can come by at 10:00am and help find a present
for our teacher. (The writer uses the general article “a” to show that he
hasn’t found a present yet, so he can’t refer to a specific one.)
Using no
article
·
Abstract nouns: For abstract nouns that don’t
refer to a physical subject, don’t use an article. Abstract nouns include
school subjects, sports, holidays, and emotions.
o
You should come watch the taekwondo competition
that’s taking place this weekend. I am very passionate about practicing [X] taekwondo.
o
The college freshman shows great enthusiasm for [X]
Mock Trial; he has been s a member of the school Mock Trial team for 3
years. (Mock Trial, as an abstract activity, does not have a definite article.
“The school Mock Trial team,” however, refers to a very specific group and does
require a definite article.)
·
Plural general nouns: Some plural nouns that
refer to general people, places, or things can be written with either “the” or
no article.
o
Please join us to participate in [the] camp activities
and [the] games throughout the week; all members of the family are
invited (The sentence is correct with a definite article or no article before
“camp activities” and “games.” By stating “the family,” the writer refers
specifically to the readers’ families.)
·
Countries: For references to most country names,
do not use an article.
§
The convention will take place in [X] Canada
next month.
o
“The Philippines” is an exception to this rule,
as it always requires a definite article
§
I hope to visit the Philippines this
summer to explore the Filipino culture.
o
NOTE: Country names that include the words
“Republic,” “United” or “Union,” “Federation,” “Empire,” “Islands,” “State”
require the use of a definite article.
§
In history class, we learned that the Russian
Federation emerged as the strongest country after the fall of the Soviet
Union.
o
NOTE: When referring to the people of a country
or describe some aspect of the country, use the general rules regarding
definite and indefinite articles.
§
The British queen visited a Korean restaurant
in London while I was touring the city.
§
It is a well-known fact that the Chinese
invented paper and printing technology.
·
Time expressions: While the time of day, decades
and centuries always require the definite article, do not use an article when
referencing days of the week, months, or the year.
o
I can’t believe it’s already [x] August!
o
Can you come over on [x] Tuesday, in
the afternoon?
o
When President Reagan declared that “it’s
morning in America” in the mid-1980s, he became one of the most popular
American presidents of the 20th century.
o
NOTE: The seasons can be written with or without
the definite article. When referring to a very specific month in time, however,
the definite article is required.
§
[The] Spring is normally a beautiful and
relaxing time of year. However, in the spring of 2018, I will be waiting
nervously for acceptance letters from colleges.
o
NOTE: When referring to a specific day of the
week, with a number or the words “first” or “last,” the definite article is
required.
§
My new
phone will arrive by mail on the second Friday of the month, while my
new phone case will arrive by the last Friday.
|
Sample Email #1
|
|
Hello,
My name is Carole Kim, and I am a junior (Since the writer is one of many such students, it is best to use the indefinite article.) at
For
references, please contact Mr. Dillon Reese, the MUN club moderator at my
school.
I am interested in advancing my skill in I understand that the Innovative Students Program academic year begins in the* fall, but I would like to join the program this spring. (The program itself is unique and requires the definite article.) Please let me know if this would be possible. I look forward to hearing from you. Best,
Carole Kim
*Remember, the definite article before
seasons is optional.
|
SUBJECT-VERB
AGREEMENT
Working
Definitions
·
Singular subject-verb combos: If the main
subject of a sentence is singular, the main verb should be singular.
o
She enjoys a bag of pretzels before lunch
every day.
·
Plural subject-verb combos: If the main subject
of a sentence is plural, the main verb should be plural.
o
The brother and sister laugh obnoxiously
in every movie, causing great inconvenience to fellow movie goers. On the other
hand, their cousin laughs only when it is appropriate.
o
Until the clock strikes midnight, we study
diligently in the silent library. My cousin studies in her room.
o
NOTE: In the simple past and future tenses, both
singular and plural verbs have the same form.
§
I wrote to the principal to request a
less stringent dress code. On the same day, the school directors wrote
to the principal to demand harsher punishments for breaking the dress code.
§
When we receive a confirmation from the
principal, we will contact you again with more details regarding the
event.
Subject-verb
agreement exceptions
·
Progressive verb tenses: When describing a past or
future action that was or will be in the process of taking place (last verb
ends in –ing), match the correct form of the root word “to be” to the number of
the noun.
o
Yesterday, I was writing to the principal
to request a less stringent dress code. Coincidentally, the school directors were
writing to the principal to demand harsher punishments for breaking the
dress code
o
Because the school office closes at 5 pm on
Fridays, I was unable to turn in my course registration sheet. On the
other hand, my friends were able to submit their forms as they visited
the office earlier in the day.
·
Or/nor situations: When multiple subjects are
linked together with “or” or “nor,” the verb form should match the number of
the noun closest to the verb.
o
By the end of the school year, neither the
teacher nor her students were
interested in learning more course content.
o
Either the parents or a guardian needs to attend the graduation ceremony.
·
First-person exceptions: When the subject of a
sentence in the present tense is “I,” use the plural form of the corresponding
verb.
o
I write for the school newspaper every
week about food, entertainment, and pop culture.
·
Doesn’t vs don’t: Doesn’t, the shortened form of
“does not,” is used for singular nouns. On the other hand, don’t, the shortened
form of “do not,” is used for plural nouns, first person expressions, or direct
commands.
o
The old man doesn’t know how to print out
an Excel file from her laptop. (NOTE: In daily conversation, “old man” is not
normally used to refer to the elderly.)
o
Don’t open the special package until you
receive person from your parents. (In direct commands, the subject “you,” is
implied.)
o
My friends and I decided to attend a tech
convention hosted by Apple, although I don’t own any Apple products.
o
After moving to a boarding school in the East
Coast, the troublesome students don’t smoke or use drugs.
o
NOTE: The past tense form of both “doesn’t” and
“don’t” is “didn’t.”
·
Collective/group nouns: For sentences with the
following indefinite pronouns, use the singular form of the corresponding verb.
|
Each
|
Each one
|
Either
|
Neither
|
|
Everyone
|
Everybody
|
Anybody
|
Anyone
|
|
Nobody
|
Somebody
|
Someone
|
No one
|
o
Is everyone prepared to take the exam tomorrow? (In question
form, the main verb goes in front of the corresponding subject.)
o
Each student needs to write a letter to
his or her local political representative as part of the homework assignment.
(The indefinite pronoun in the subject should be treated as a singular noun
throughout the sentence. The phrase “his or her,” is a common way to reference
the possession of a singular subject.)
·
Special singular nouns: Conceptual nouns that
refer to a non-physical subject and end in –s (diseases, fields of study,
games) are singular subjects, and require the use of the singular verb form.
o
Through my science research project, I learned
that measles is a deadly disease.
o
Many of my classmates have told me that
economics is a much more difficult field than politics.
o
NOTE: Verbs that refer to an action taken by a
group of people collectively, as a single unit, also require the singular verb
form. If you are referencing the actions of a few members of the group, or
actions that occur amongst members of the group, use the plural verb form.
§
The debate team competes at college-level
tournaments at least 5 times a year. However, members of the debate team often fight
over which local conferences to attend.
§
NOTE: The noun phrase, “the police,” is an exception,
as it is always plural.
·
“The police have penetrated the robbers’
hideout!” the reporter shouted over the din of the wailing police sirens.
·
Special plural nouns: For nouns that are made up
of paired items, such as scissors, pants, and glasses, use the plural verb
form. However, if you attach “the pair of” in front of the paired noun, use the
singular verb form.
o
Did you find my scissors? They are
probably hidden behind the cupboard in the back of the classroom. That
particular pair of scissors has not been seen in many years.
VERB TENSES & TRICKY USAGES
Gerunds and past participles
Working
definitions
·
Gerunds: Verbs ending in -ing that indicate an
action in progress
o
Gerunds can also be used to refer to a general
action as a noun. (Running is an exhaustive activity. My favorite thing
to do is learning foreign languages.)
·
Past participles: Verbs typically ending in -ed
used in compound past tense constructions with the verbs “had,” “has,” “have,”
or “will have”
§
The ambitious student had tried to earn
an “A” in the class.
§
I will have turned 18 by November, making
me eligible to vote in the 2016 election.
o
NOTE: For regular verbs, the spelling of the
past participle form is the same as the spelling of the regular past tense
form.
§
I finished and submitted my book report
by email, five minutes after the deadline. I would have submitted it
earlier, but I wanted to revise my work one more time.
o
The past participle verb form has many
exceptions. Check the chart below for some common irregular cases.
|
Irregular
Verb
|
Past
participle
|
|
Begin
|
Begun
|
|
Break
|
Broken
|
|
Drive
|
Driven
|
|
Choose
|
Chosen
|
|
Do
|
Done
|
|
Write
|
Written
|
|
Buy
|
Bought
|
|
Catch
|
Caught
|
|
Get
|
Got
|
|
Leave
|
Left
|
|
Find
|
Found
|
|
Come
|
Come
|
|
|
|
·
Both –ing verbs and -ed past participles can be
used to describe nouns or pronouns.
o
The museum, established in honor of
America’s founding fathers, holds an elaborate celebration on July 4th
every year. (The clause inside the commas, beginning with the past participle
“established,” provides background information about the main subject—the
museum. Note that this description provides details about the museum from the
past.)
o
Flipping open her laptop, the determined
student began to type her English essay furiously. (The clause starting with
“flipping” describes the subject—the determined student—or provides background
info about what she is currently doing. Note that this description provides a
sense of progress, as if the action is happening right now.)
·
Keep in mind that descriptive clauses that start
with and –ing or –ed verb need to be placed as close as possible to the noun
they are describing.
o
The college student sprinted down the sidewalk
with her energetic puppy, flicking droplets of sweat from her forehead.
(The reader cannot know if the clause “flicking droplets…” refers to the
college student or the energetic puppy. Place this clause immediately after or
before the noun “the college student,” in order to clarify the meaning.)
o
The college student, flicking droplets of
sweat from her forehead, sprinted down the sidewalk with her energetic puppy.
Infinitive verbs
Working definition
·
A verb in the form “to be” that can serve as
either a noun or descriptive phrase
o
Like gerunds, infinitives can also be used to
refer to a general action as a noun. However, when starting a sentence with a
general action as the main subject, it is more common to use the gerund form.
§
She wants to study abroad in London as soon as she enters
college. (What she wants –a noun—is to study abroad.)
§
Travelling to a foreign country so soon
after transitioning to a new school is not recommended.
Special Verb Groups
May vs.
might
·
When talking about the probability of a scenario,
use “may” to demonstrate that the situation is likely to take place and use
“might” to imply that it is possible, but less likely.
o
I may attend the party tomorrow night, so
long as I finish all of my homework in the afternoon. (The writer believes that
he/she is likely to attend the party, as long as the following condition is
fulfilled.)
o
I absolutely detest sleeping outdoors, but you might
be able to convince me to go camping with you for one weekend. (The writer
implies that there is little to no possibility that she will be convinced to go
on the trip.)
o
The proud parents of the class valedictorian might
not be present for their son’s commencement address at the graduation
ceremony. (The writer believes that
there is a slight possibility of the above situation taking place.)
·
When requesting or granting permission, “may” is
a more direct statement, while “might” implies a sense of uncertainty.
o
May I bring my cellphone into the
classroom during the week of final exams? (The writer directly and respectfully
requests permission from a figure of authority)
o
Might I propose a small change to the
layout created by the editor-in-chief? (The writer is even more respectful to
the figure of authority or the established situation and recognizes that it is
likely his request will not be accepted.)
§
NOTE: Daily emails and interactions in American
society do not require the same level of obedience nor follow the same
hierarchy that is found in Korean society. It is perfectly acceptable to make
requests to one’s teacher or boss with the “may” construction.
Could vs.
would vs. can
·
When asking polite questions or making requests,
use “can” to ask permission to do or say something. Use “can” or “could” to
make polite suggestions or ask a question.
§
Can we drive your car to Los Angeles over
the weekend?
§
Could you/ can you share the google doc
file with me?
o
NOTE: Although it is common to use both “may”
and “can” when asking for permission to do or say something, in formal
situations, it is more appropriate to use “may.” When speaking informally to
friends or family, it is perfectly acceptable to use “can” for this purpose.
o
“Would” is also used in specific cases, to ask a
polite question. It is appropriate to pose a question with the word “would” to
friends, parents, and other figures of authority. Check the chart below for
phrases that specifically use the word “would.”
|
Would it be okay /alright…
(this phrase is always followed by an infinitive verb)
|
to begin volunteering with the organization next week?
(The writer or the asker is the implied subject that would carry out
the main action. In order to ask permission for someone else, include the
phrase “for + [subject]” in front of the infinitive verb.)
E.g. Would it be okay for my brother to begin volunteering
next week?
|
|
Would you mind…?
(this phrase is followed either by a gerund [-ing] or an “if” phrase)
|
staying until evening to watch my concert?
(With the “would you mind [gerund]” construction, the audience (you)
is the implied subject. In order to ask permission for someone else, include
the possessive form of the subject in front of the verb.)
E.g. Would you mind my staying until the evening?
|
|
if I spent the day with my family?
(With the “would you mind if” construction, use the past tense form
of the verb, even when asking for permission for a present or future event.)
|
§
NOTE: In response to a “Would you mind…”
question, say “no” in order to grant permission or approve a request (I would
not mind, it would not bother me) and “yes” to refuse or oppose. (Refer to the
“Questions (yes or no)” section for more info.)
·
When expressing a present or future ability to
do or say something, use “can.”
o
If I am occupied when you arrive, my research
partner can give you a tour of the lab. (In this sentence, “if” indicates a
potential situation, and “can” indicates the research partner’s future ability
in response to this scenario.)
o
I can type at 100 wpm. (This sentence
expresses the writer’s current ability.)
·
When expressing a past ability or something that
was possible in the past, use “could.”
o
When I was training for the taekwondo
championships, I could run a 5K in under twenty minutes. (The writer had
the ability expressed in the second clause in a past time, as specified by the
first clause.)
o
My sister could have been the
valedictorian of her middle school class if I had helped her more often with
her homework. (The scenario expressed in the first clause would have been
possible in the past had the condition in the second clause been fulfilled.)
·
When discussing a highly likely event that
hasn’t happen, didn’t happen or is unlikely to happen, use “would.”
o
My boss would have been pleased to see me
working so hard, even during Christmas break. (The writer is certain that the
first clause would have been achieved if the second clause had been fulfilled.)
o
My sister would have been the
valedictorian of her middle school class if I had helped her more often with
her homework. (Both “could” and “would” can be used in this context, but
“would” implies a greater sense of certainty that this outcome, which was not
carried through, would have taken place.)
§
NOTE: While “could” and “would” can be used for
similar purposes, “would” suggests greater certainty, as it emphasizes that the
scenario would definitely have taken place if a condition had been met.
o
To express unquestionably and objectively that
an outcome is going to take place or to demonstrate that you are certain that
something is true, use “will” in place of “would.”
§
It will be hard to run the classes with irregular attendance.
o
NOTE: Although “may” and “can,” are often mixed
up, keep in mind that “may” implies that one is granting or receiving
permission to carry out an action. “Can” implies one’s ability to carry out the
action, based on external factors or internal capabilities.
§
You may teach or learn foreign language
with your pen pal. (This sentence would make perfect sense in an instruction
manual or list of instructions provided by a teacher.)
§
You can teach or learn foreign language with
your pen pal. (In order to suggest potential activities that the reader could
do or to remind him of activities that he is capable of doing, use “can.”)
Prepositions
Working
definition
·
Preposition: a word that describes the
direction, position, time, or intention of the main subject
o
Check the chart below for some common
prepositions used in everyday writing
|
About
|
After
|
Below
|
|
Beyond
|
Concerning
|
Except
|
|
For
|
From
|
Instead of
|
|
Of
|
Outside
|
Over
|
|
Regarding
|
To
|
With
|
·
Prepositional Idioms: phrases that require a
specific preposition, based on the context of the sentence
o
My aunt is participating in a teacher
appreciation event at my school. (The word “participating” must be
written with the preposition “in” and not any other word.)
Common idiomatic
expressions
·
Check the chart below for some common expressions
that are always written with the preposition shown on the right side of the
chart (or without any prepositions, in some cases).
|
Common error
|
Correct sentence
|
|
My team organized the first North Korean
refugee awareness day in my school.
|
My team organized the first North Korean
refugee awareness day at my school, in the gym. (To describe
the location of an event, use “at”. To specify a specific place within this
location, use “in”.)
|
|
I am currently a high school junior, so I
will consider to attend the college-level course next year.
|
I am currently a high school junior, so I
will consider attending the college-level course next year. (When
describing what one is considering, “consider” should be followed by a
gerund.)
|
|
My parents and I have discussed about the
logistics of the summer English program.
|
My parents and I have discussed [x]
the logistics of the summer English program.
|
|
I will email to someone.
|
I will email him/her. OR I will send
an email to him/her.
|
|
She was so pleased to learn about your
enthusiasm about learning Korean. OR She was so pleased to learn about your
enthusiasm to learn Korean.
|
She was so pleased to learn about your enthusiasm
for learning Korean
|
|
Please fill in the form. Remember to fill
out all the blanks before turning in the paper.
|
Please fill out the form. Remember
to fill in all the blanks before turning in the paper. (You can fill
“out” an entire form, waiver, or packet, but you can only fill “in”
individual blanks, spaces, or lines on the form.)
|
|
It seems like a great summer camp and
fits for my interest very well.
|
It seems like a great summer camp and fits
[x] my interest very well.
|
|
Have you spoken to any foreigners who
have interests about Korea?
|
Have you spoken to any foreigners who have
interest in Korea? OR Have you spoken to any foreigners who are
interested in Korea?
|
|
My brother has a passion to contribute to
biomedical research projects.
|
My brother has a passion for
contributing to biomedical research projects.
|
|
I am not sure about the possibility to
form a group to attend the program.
|
I am not sure about the possibility of
forming a group to attend the program.
|
|
This is a friendly reminder for the
registration process.
|
This is a friendly reminder about
the registration process. OR This is a friendly reminder for all
parents that registration closes today. (If the word “reminder” is followed
by the person for whom it is intended, use “for”. To describe what
information is contained in the reminder, use “about.”)
|
|
We decided that it would be best for him
to rest during the rest of the week.
|
We decided that it would be best for him
to rest for the rest of the week.
|
|
I am so sorry not to reply to you about
our winter vacation plans.
|
I am so sorry for not replying to
you about our winter vacation plans.
|
|
I will wait your response.
|
I will wait for your response.
|
|
I will be out of office next week and will
resume to work on Monday.
|
I will be out of office next week and will
resume working on Monday. OR I will be out of office next week and will return
to work on Monday
|
·
NOTE: The gerund verb form cannot be used with
the preposition “to” (Recall the discussion of infinitive verbs in the previous
section.)
|
Sample Email #2
|
|
Hello James,
This is Rosalie from the LAKS admin team. Thank you for your inquiry.
We are so pleased to
We have discussed
If you would like to attend the classes,
please sign up by June 1st. If there are not enough registrants, we will let
you know as soon as possible. (Notice that the
writer doesn’t refer to “classes” in general, but the specific “classes” that
were discussed in the previous paragraph.) The admin team is more than
happy to assist you in finding a spot in the fall programs.
Thank you in advance for your understanding. If you have any further*** questions, please feel free to contact us.
Warmly,
*“Know about” is more often used with facts or information that the
writer has known for a long time. (I know that you are a skilled orator.)
“Hear about” or “heard about” indicates information that the writer recently
received from an outside source.
**While “would” is grammatically correct in this sentence, “will”
conveys a greater sense of certainty that is often necessary in business
emails.
***In the closing remarks, the word “further” implies that the email
recipient has already asked a question. Write the sentence without the word
“further” if this is the first time you are contacting someone.
|
SENTENCE STRUCTURE/ FORM
Transitional
Words
Working
definition
·
words that transition between ideas, sentences,
paragraphs, or topics smoothly and coherently
Common
errors
·
“so”: The word “so” can be used at either the
beginning or middle of the sentence to express a cause-and-effect between two clauses.
You should be able to replace “so” with “therefore” without changing the
meaning of the sentence. Remember to place either a comma or period before “so”
to distinguish between clauses.
o
It snowed heavily for an entire week, so
I spent the weekend with my family at a ski resort.
o
I graduated from a very good high school that
specializes in math and science. So I decided to study statistics and
calculus in college.
§
NOTE: Do not place a comma after “so” when it is
used to connect two different sentences or parts of the sentence. A comma is
written after the transitional “so” only if it is part of a short phrase that
interrupts the sentence flow.
·
The professor informed me that the dean of
students wanted to see me immediately, so,
alarmed at the urgency of the call, I hurried off to the dean’s office.
o
The technician advised that we shut the windows
and doors tightly at night so that no cold air comes into the house.
(The phrase “so that” demonstrates the purpose or provides explanation for an
action. When writing “so that”, do not use commas to set off the phrase.)
o
Because I was writing so fast, it is possible
that my handwriting will be too messy to read. If so, please let me know
immediately, and I will send a typed copy of the manuscript to you right away.
(The phrase “if so” expresses a conditional statement and can be replaced by
the phrase “if that is the case.” Use “if so,” followed by a comma, if you want
to introduce a condition or action that only applies if the situation you
mentioned in the previous clause is true.)
·
“but”: The word “but” can be used at the
beginning or middle of a sentence to introduce a contrasting or contradictory
clause to an idea discussed in the previous sentence or part of the sentence. Similar
to a “so” statement, do not place any punctuation marks after “but.”
o
My boss requested that I travel with him to
Australia for the winter holiday, but I would prefer to stay at home.
o
The class brought treats to school to celebrate
their teacher’s 50th birthday. But all of the ice cream
melted before the teacher arrived.
·
“and”: The word “and” can be used to link
different clauses together as a continuation of a previously-expressed thought.
Similar to a “so” statement, do not place any punctuation marks after the “and.”
o
NOTE: Both “and” and “but” can be used in the
middle of a sentence to connect two phrases. In this case, remember not to use
any commas before or after the word.
§
My dream is to major in business administration and
English literature.
§
The first-grader appeared delighted but slightly
nervous as he sank his teeth into the ultra-spicy burrito.
o
NOTE: When using “and”, “but”, or “so” at the
beginning of a sentence, make sure that the clause that follows expresses a
full thought.
|
Incorrect sentence
|
Correction #1
|
Correction #2
|
|
My friend is one of the kindest people I know. And one of the
smartest. (Here, “one of the smartest” is not a complete thought as there is
no subject.)
|
My friend is one of the kindest people I know and one of the
smartest.
|
My friend is one of the kindest people I know. And she is one of the smartest.
|
Other ways
to transition effectively
·
When transitioning into the next idea, it is not
always necessary to insert a transition word such as “so”, “and”, or “but” at
the beginning of a sentence. Excessive use of transition words can lead to
clunky sentences and distract the reader from the intended meaning of a
statement. You can transition effectively between sentences with the following
strategies.
o
Repeat a key word or phrase in the previous sentence
in the context of the next sentence or a new idea.
§
I am deeply sorry for being unable to turn in my
final report on time. Due to my participation in the student leadership
conference, I did not feel that I had enough time to edit and revise the
essay. (The writer is able to connect his apology with his explanation, while
also hinting that he had not received enough time to fulfill the task.)
o
Use the definite article (“the”) or pronouns to
indicate to your reader that you are referring back to a previously-mentioned
noun.
§
When I was younger, my college-age uncle often
walked with me in the park. He would answer all of my questions about
how the human brain functions and why the sky was blue.
§
There is a flashing light at the bottom of my
computer monitor that I cannot turn off. I would greatly appreciate if you
could explain how to turn off the button.
§
NOTE: When using “he” or “she” to allude to a
previously-mentioned noun, be careful to distinguish which noun you are
referring to.
·
The clown presented me, my two sisters, and my
best friend with red balloons. Upon receiving the surprise, she leaped
around the room with glee. (In this case, it would be better to refer to the
individual by name, as it is impossible to tell whether the leaping person is
one of the writer’s sisters or her friend.)
o
Replace a repeated phrase with a demonstrative
noun or adjective (this, that, these, those) in order to make your sentences
smoother and easier to read.
§
The first
business proposal presented at the convention left a very strong impression
on the judging panel. One expert later hinted that this proposal was the
most promising one of the entire conference.
o
Use phrases that indicate continuity. (still, yet,
equally important, again, while)
§
“You don’t have to talk across me, mother. My
brain isn’t paralyzed, yet.” (from the movie, Me Before You)
§
When it was first established, the university
was committed to providing free education to every qualified applicant. The
school still strives to fulfill its founding goal.
o
Incorporate less obvious transition words in the
body of the sentence. (despite, even though, even, rather, whereas, unlike, in
spite of, together with, likewise)
§
The career diplomat courageously agreed to work
in a war-ravaged country, despite the lack of basic services and
potential danger.
English Written Expressions
Active vs. passive voice
Working
Definitions
·
Active voice: a statement in which the subject
is doing the main action
o
When my family and I visited the US for the
first time, we took many photos at monuments such as the Lincoln
Memorial and Statue of Liberty. (“We”—the main subjects—are “[taking] many
photos”—the main action.)
·
Passive voice: a statement in which the subject
is not doing the main action ([form of the verb “to be”] + past participle)
o
When my family and I visited the US for the
first time, many photos were
taken at monuments such as the Lincoln Memorial and Statue of Liberty.
(“Many photos—the main subject—are being “taken”—the main action—by an unnamed
person. Notice that the passive verb, “were taken,” contains one form of the
verb “to be.”)
o
Check the chart below for all the forms of the
verb “to be” used in the passive voice.
|
Be
|
Being
|
Been
|
|
Am
|
Is
|
Are
|
|
|
Was
|
Were
|
·
The active voice is more frequently used in
English writing (and email writing), as it eliminates some of the repetition
and clunky language in the passive voice.
o
The registration forms were created by
the school principal, and day-to-day operations are overseen by the
vice-principal. -> The school principal created the registration
forms, and the vice-principal oversaw day-to-day operations. (The second
sentence in the active voice is shorter, smoother, and easier to understand.)
o
Immediately after completing their last final
exam, the high school juniors grabbed their backpacks, raced out
of the classroom, and hopped into their cars, eager to begin their
summer. (The active voice conveys a sense of action and energy that the stiff
passive voice lacks.)
·
The passive voice is sometimes substituted for
the active voice in order to de-emphasize or minimize the role of the subject,
or to discuss a situation objectively.
o
Professor, my homework was taken from my
desk! (The writer, likely a student, uses the passive voice to suggest that he
or she was not the one that caused this situation. Thus, the writer implies
that he is not responsible for not having the homework.)
o
The coating on the glass beakers was removed
with an alcohol swab. (In scientific reports, the passive voice is frequently
used to maintain a sense of objectivity.)
o
On January 5, 2016, the unarmed defendant was
assailed by the plaintiff in a dark alley. (In legal writing or court case
arguments, the passive voice is frequently used to demonstrate that one party
was not actively involved in an illegal activity, but was instead a “passive”
victim.)
Modifier errors
Working
definition
·
Modifier: a phrase that “modifies” or describes
an element of the sentence, but is not absolutely necessary to the sentence
structure
o
Why do you, an
enthusiastic and capable college student, want to work here, a small start-up company with very little
pay? (The basic sentence makes sense even without the modifying phrases.
“An enthusiastic and capable college student” provides extra details about the
noun “you,” while “a small start-up company…” provides details about the noun
“here.”)
o
NOTE: Modifying phrases that are two or more words
long are normally separated from the rest of the sentence with commas or long
em dashes (—)
·
Modifying phrases need to be placed as close as
possible to the word or group of words that they are describing to avoid
confusion.
o
Hoping to receive an internship at the top
engineering firm, the interview went very well for the new graduate. (The
modifying phrase “hoping…firm” is placed right before “the interview,” making
it seem that “the interview” is feeling this sentiment. A corrected sentence
would read: The interview went very well for the new graduate, who was hoping
to receive an internship at the top engineering firm.)
·
NOTE: Pay special attention to the placement of
adverbs (descriptive words that typically end in –ly, or only, just, almost,
nearly, merely), for it can change the intended meaning of a sentence.
|
My family ONLY donates $5 each week to support the church’s fund for
disabled students. (emphasizes the monetary nature of the family’s
contribution)
|
My family donates ONLY $5 each week to support the church’s fund for
disabled students. (emphasizes the exact amount that the family donates)
|
My family donates $5 each week to support ONLY the church’s fund for
disabled students. (emphasizes the exact purpose that the family donates to)
|
Confusing verbs of speech (What’s the
difference?)
Working
definitions
·
Say: to express an opinion or fact
·
Speak: to say words in order to express
thoughts, feelings, opinions to someone
·
Talk: to have a conversation about something
·
Tell: to say words to someone or give
information by speaking or writing
Despite
being very similar in meaning, the four words are used in very different
contexts.
|
|
Usage
|
Examples
|
|
Say (said)
|
·
Refers generally to what is being expressed,
was previously expressed, or will be expressed by a person
·
Can also refer to specific units of expression
(to say “a word”, “name,” “sentence”, or “phrase”)
·
Most commonly used without an indirect object
(who you are saying something to,
the audience)
|
·
After a two hour delay, the flight attendant said
(that) the plane would be departing in 20 minutes. (When specifying what is being said, it is optional to
include the word “that”.)
·
The well-mannered girl said a bad word
innocently and cheerfully, unaware of its meaning.
·
If I were president of the US, I would say
to the people of this country that Americans need to care more about the
events happening outside their borders. (In order to reference the audience
in a statement with “say”, use the word “to” immediately after the verb.)
|
|
Speak (spoke)
|
·
Refers to more formal conversations and one-way
communication
·
Refers to one’s knowledge of a language
|
·
Yes, I will speak in front of the
school at the all-school assembly. (NOTE: “To speak” can often be replaced by
“to deliver a speech,” as both imply that one person is doing almost all of
the talking.
·
As requested, I will drop by the office to
speak with the principal tomorrow. The president will speak to the
White House staff tonight in honor of the President’s day holiday. (The
audience can be introduced in a “speak” statement with the word “with” or
“to”. “With” implies more of a two-way interaction, while “to” retains the
sense of a one-sided speech.
·
My international relations professor spoke
French, Italian, Korean, and Vietnamese.
|
|
Talk (talked)
|
·
Refers to more casual, informal conversation
|
·
Voters love the candidate, as he talks with
constituents sincerely and compassionately, unlike the rest of the candidate
pool. (Similar to the rules for a “speak” statement, “talk” should be followed
by “with” or “to” in order to introduce the audience.)
|
|
Tell (told)
|
·
Can be replaced with “instruct” or “inform” (a
speaker “instructs” or “informs” the listener)
·
Most commonly followed by an indirect object (without
the word “to”) and a direct object
|
When the purpose is to instruct: “to tell” + [listener] + [infinitive
verb form]
·
My mother tells me to take out the trash every week.
When the purpose is to inform: “to tell” + [listener] + “that” + [a
fact]
·
I was told that the most fashionable stationery could be found in Korea.
|
Confusing verbs of desire and anticipation
Working
definitions
·
Want: to long for or need a certain person,
thing, or situation
o
NOTE: “Wish” is a less forceful form of the verb
“want” and can be used in more formal contexts.
·
Hope: to desire that a particular action will
take place
·
Expect: to believe that a certain situation is
going to take place
Common
expressions with “want”, “wish”, “hope”, “expect”
·
We wish you and your family a wonderful
holiday season. (The word “wish” is used with the situation, “a wonderful
holiday season”.)
·
I hope you have a restful weekend. (The word “hope” is used with the action,
“hav[ing] a restful weekend.)
o
NOTE: At the end of an email, it is acceptable
to write “Hope you have [a great weekend]!” or “Hope you enjoy [your
vacation]!” without including the main subject “I” at the beginning of the
sentence. However, for expressions that start with “wish,” the subject must be
included at the start of the sentence, such as in the above example.
·
I want you to send me the quarterly
report before the end of the week. (“Want” is most commonly used by a senior or
someone of a higher rank speaking to someone of a lower rank, due to its direct,
commanding nature.)
·
The teacher expects his students to
submit their take-home exams by the end of the month. (In this example,
“expects” can be replaced by “wants” without changing the general meaning of
the sentence. However, “expects” is slightly stronger, because it implies that
the teacher not only needs a certain outcome to occur (“wants”) but also
believes that his desire is going to be fulfilled (“expects”).
·
I expect to be finished with my book
report in two days. (Both “expect” and “want” are immediately followed by an
infinitive verb.)
|
Sample Email #3
|
|
Hello Coach Chris,
I am so sorry that I
Unfortunately, my back is not quite recovered yet. I spoke with my
doctor yesterday, and she recommended that I rest my back for the rest of the
season. So
I had a great time
Thank you so much for your** understanding
and your support for me. (Use parallel structure
to make the sentence smoother: thank you so much for “your understanding”
[noun] and “your support” [noun].)
Warmly,
Jillian
*In this situation, it is advisable not
to write “at the few practices I
attended,” because the word few
suggests that the writer did not attend very many practices. The writer’s
goal is to state that she enjoyed the practices that she attended, not to
emphasize that she only attended a few practices.
**Without the “your,” “understanding” by
itself is a verb in this context.
|
Questions (Yes or no)
Working
Definition
·
Tricky “yes or no” questions: questions that are
posed in the negative form, and require the listener to agree or disagree
o
Wouldn’t you like something to eat? -> Would
you not like something to eat?
§
Response, Korean-style: Yes, I don’t want anything
to eat now.
§
Response, English-style: No, I don’t want anything
to eat now.
·
In Korean, the audience responds to such
questions in the context of the question. The writer asks specifically if you would
NOT like to eat something. If you are hungry and want to eat something, the
correct answer is no, and if you aren’t in the mood for a snack, the correct
answer is clearly yes.
·
However, in English, the audience responds to a
universal system in which “yes” corresponds with situations in which a person has taken an action or does possess a quality or desire referenced
in the question. By the same logic, “no” corresponds with situations in which a
person has not taken an action or does not possess a quality or desire referenced
in the question
Common
examples
·
Isn’t the summer camp very expensive? -> Is
the summer camp not very expensive?
o
Yes, it is incredibly expensive.
o
No, the cost is not that high.
·
Wouldn’t you like to sign up for extra
college-level courses this fall? -> Would you not like to sign up for extra
college-level courses?
o
Yes, I would like to sign up for more courses
and challenge myself with a rigorous schedule.
o
No, I already have a very difficult schedule and
do not wish to take extra courses.
·
Don’t you miss me? -> Do you not miss me?
o
Yes, I miss you a lot!
o
No, I don’t miss you.
·
Can’t you stay a little longer? -> Can you
not stay a little longer?
o
Yes, I can stay for a few more minutes.
o
No, unfortunately, my parents are expecting me
home by dinnertime.
·
Are you not interested in continuing your
subscription with this magazine?
o
Yes, I would like to continue my subscription.
o
No, I am not interested in continuing my
subscription. Please remove me from your list.
Compound
words
Working
definitions
·
Linked word (closed form): a compound word
formed by connecting two different words without a space or hyphen (Linked compound
words are typically nouns, verbs, or adjectives)
o
A greenhouse, to overthrow,
·
Hyphenated word: a word formed by connecting two
or more words with a hyphen (Hyphenated compound words are typically nouns or
adjectives)
o
A merry-go-round, 500-page novel
·
Separated words (open form): a word formed by connecting
two different words with a space (Separated compound words are typically nouns,
verbs, adverbs or adjectives)
o
The swimming pool, highly paid lawyer
Using
hyphens
·
When a compound phrase has more than one
potential meaning, use a hyphen in order to clarify the meaning.
o
My favorite movie was the one about the ancient-history
teacher. (With the hyphen, the writer clarifies that he is referring to a
teacher of ancient history, not a really old history teacher.)
·
When a compound word description is used before
a noun, use a hyphen. When the description comes after a noun, however, don’t
use a hyphen.
§
The visiting scholar’s lecture was well
thought out and insightful. The well-thought-out plan involved many
elaborate details, including a radio, some hard hats, and a late night
scavenger hunt.
o
When a compound word description involves an
adverb (often words that end in –ly), don’t use a hyphen.
§
Members of the publishing industry sang praises
for the recently published book, the first published by the young
author.
o
When talking about one’s age, use hyphens if the
age is mentioned before a noun but no hyphen if the age comes after a noun.
§
While searching for information about the Cold
War, I uncovered a seventy-one-year-old manuscript of Winston Churchill’s speech about the “Iron Curtain.”
§
My younger sister is ten years old.
·
When compound words or phrases are formed by
adding a prefix (anti, pre, post, re, non), don’t use a hyphen.
§
Although I scored poorly on the pretest
that we took in class, I passed the actual high school exit exam with flying
colors.
§
My friends decided to go to the mall yesterday
and encountered a rowdy antiwar protest.
o
NOTE: The prefixes “ex,” “all,” and “self” are
always written with a hyphen.
§
Today’s philosophy lesson focused on the
principle of self-respect and integrity.
o
However, if the main word in the compound phrase
is capitalized, use a hyphen.
§
In order to inspire us to become interested in
the pre-Colombian trade, my teacher organized various simulations where
different students represented Native Americans, African tribes, and European
traders.
§
Non-German minorities living in Europe in
the early 1940s suffered high casualties due to the war.
o
If the prefix is attached to a number (e.g. a
year, decade, or century), use a hyphen.
§
Post-1648, the European region began to
gravitate into a system of nation-states, shaped by the Peace of Westphalia.
o
If a vowel is repeated at the end of the prefix
and the beginning of the main word, use a hyphen to avoid confusion.
§
In 2012, President Obama was successfully
re-elected as the US president.
o
If more than one prefix is used, use hyphens to
separate them.
§
American women in the mid-to-late 19th
century accomplished some advancement in the movement for gender equality.
(Refer to the above grammar rules to determine whether or not a hyphen should
be used between the last prefix and the main word. In the above sentence, no
hyphen is used as the main word starts with a number.)
·
When writing out numbers as words, use a hyphen
only for numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine
o
We have forty-eight hours before we need to
present our paper in front of the panel of judges.
o
One hundred twenty-five people attended the
rally in California, to boost support for presidential candidate Hillary
Clinton.
·
Check the chart below for common compound words
and expressions.
|
Linked Compound Words
|
Hyphenated Compound Words
|
Separated Compound Words
|
|
A policeman
Her boyfriend
The software
To send an email
Playing baseball
To host a fundraiser
To say goodbye
Newborn baby
The dangerous earthquake
In my lifetime
The approaching deadline
|
Anti-abortion, pro-life
Great-grandfather (great-great-aunt)
My mother-in-law
To double-click
|
High school students
Public speaking
Decision making
|
Punctuation
The Comma
Working
definition
·
A grammatical symbol used to indicate separation
of ideas or a pause in the sentence flow
When to use
commas:
·
In a compound sentence with two distinct ideas
joined by a transition word (for, and, nor, but, or yet, so), use a comma if
both clauses have a distinct subject and each expresses a complete thought.
o
I am looking for an entry-level summer job, and I am interested in
working at a youth science camp. (Both the first and second clause have a
distinct subject, “I”, and each clause, by itself, can be a simple sentence.)
o
The student was exhausted but was determined
to put the finishing touches on her art portfolio before going to bed. (No
distinct subject is stated in the second clause, so a comma should not be
used.)
·
In a complex sentence with an additional
clause(s) that provides more information about the main clause, use a comma to
separate the different clauses.
o
Check the chart below for common connector words
(subordinate conjunctions) that begin additional clauses.
|
After
|
Although
|
As [if]
|
|
As long as
|
As much as
|
As soon as
|
|
As though
|
Because
|
Before
|
|
Even if
|
Even though
|
How
|
|
If
|
In order to
|
Lest
|
|
Now that
|
Provided (that)
|
Since
|
|
So that
|
Than
|
Though
|
|
Unless
|
Until
|
When / whenever
|
|
Where / wherever
|
While
|
|
o
As soon as you fill out the form, please
send me the signed copy. (The additional clause, beginning with the connector
word “as soon as,” comes before the main clause, so a comma is necessary to
separate the two clauses.)
o
It is better to listen carefully to the professor’s
directions lest you receive a bad grade in the course. (The additional
clause which begins with the connector word “lest” comes after the main clause,
so a comma is not necessary.)
·
In a list of three or more nouns, adjectives, adverbs,
or verbs, use commas between each phrase in the list. Note that the comma after
the second to last phrase is optional.
o
Over the summer, I plan to sleep a lot, eat good
food[,] and read several classic books.
o
My lovable, generous, and sympathetic friend
agreed to help me study for my final exams. (In a list of adjectives, do not
use a comma to separate the last adjective from the word being described.)
o
NOTE: For particularly long lists where the phrases
themselves include commas, use semicolons (;) to separate each object.
§
Please examine the following list of tasks prior
to the start of the school year: register for student clubs, summer courses,
and an eating plan; submit your social security number and health insurance
provider to the health office; and visit local libraries, museums, and eateries
to familiarize yourself with the town.
·
In a sentence with a short phrase that provides
extra information about a noun, use commas to isolate the phrase from the rest
of the sentence. The sentence should express a complete thought even without
the extra phrase.
o
Once you arrive on campus, look for Mr. Scott, the
teacher in the brown coat, as he will guide you to your first class.
o
Could you help me find a magazine that was printed in the early
20th century? (Do not use commas to separate clauses that begin
with “that.”)
·
When referencing a specific date (month, day and
year) in the body of an email, use a comma after the day and the year to
preserve sentence fluidity.
o
I graduated from a local community college on May
17, 2014, and immediately began to study at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Double and Single Quotation Marks
Working
Definitions
·
Double quotation
marks (“quote”): A grammatical symbol used to distinguish a word or phrase from
the rest of the sentence, to reference dialogue or the title of a work, or to use
a word in a non-traditional way
·
Single quotation marks (‘quote’): A grammatical
symbol used very rarely in English grammar
When to use
double and single quotation marks:
·
When referencing material that was directly
stated by another person, use double quotation marks around the quoted
statement.
o
On the official competition website, it says,
“Children of Google employees are ineligible to enter or participate in the
Contest.”
§
NOTE: All commas or periods that come at the end
of the quotation should be written inside the quotation marks. Exclamation and
question marks should be written inside the quotation marks only if the
referenced statement itself is an exclamation or question.
o
The principal said that it was the “proudest
moment of [his] life when one of [his] students shouted, ‘I won the Obama
Presidential Service Award!’”
§
NOTE: When the person speaking in the quoted
material refers to something said by a different speaker, use single quotes to
distinguish what is said by the second speaker.
·
When referring to the titles of major works
(books, movies, music albums, plays), use italics. When referring to the titles
of smaller works within the major ones (book chapters, individual songs,
individual acts in a play), use double quotation marks.
o
While watching the Broadway musical, Hamilton, I was moved by the song
“History has its Eyes on You.”
§
NOTE: Unlike
in Korean grammar, it is very rare to use the double angle brackets (<<quote>>)
to introduce quoted material.
·
When referring to a word or phrase sarcastically
or ironically to cast doubt on the meaning of the word as used in the sentence,
place the word or phrase within double quotation marks.
o
The girl said that she was my “friend” as she
tried to cheat off of my exam paper.
§
NOTE: In order to emphasize a particular word, underline
or italicize it instead of using
quotation marks.
·
When introducing words without referring to the
meaning of the words themselves, use the double quotation marks.
o
As he is still learning how to read and write in
English, my younger brother often uses the word “witch” instead of “which.”
(The writer refers to the words “witch” and “which” and the manner in which his
younger brother uses them, not the real meaning of the two words themselves.)
o
NOTE: Italicize all foreign words in a sentence.
§
Anneonghaseyeo
is the appropriate way to greet someone in Korean.
Em-dash
Working
definition
·
A grammatical symbol (— or --) used to indicate a pause that can
replace a comma, colon, or parentheses
When to use
em-dashes
·
Em-dashes can be written in place of commas to
place more emphasis on the enclosed text. In this context, em-dashes always
come in pairs.
|
Comma
|
Em-dash
|
|
I would like to buy a new laptop, preferably one that costs less than
$1,000, before the start of the school year.
|
I would like to buy a new laptop—preferably one that costs less than
$1,000—before the start of the school year.
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·
Em-dashes can be written in place of parentheses
to place more emphasis on the enclosed text in a slightly less formal manner.
One or two em-dashes can be used, depending on the context.
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Parentheses
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Em-dash
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Through my science research, I discovered that many of the
supermarket’s brands (over 50 of them) were contaminated with potentially
harmful chemicals.
In the past, many people predicted that the end of the world would
arrive at the beginning of the 21st century (January 1, 2000).
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Through my science research, I discovered that many of the
supermarket’s brands—over 50 of them—were contaminated with potentially
harmful chemicals.
In the past, many people predicted that the end of the world would
arrive at the beginning of the 21st century—January 1, 2000. (When
the phrase in parentheses is placed at the end of a sentence, only one
em-dash is needed.
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Em-dashes can be written in place of colons to emphasize
the conclusion of a clause in a slightly less formal manner. Only one em-dash
is necessary in this context.
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Colon
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Em-dash
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After eight long months of preparation and planning, my family
finally moved to the US: a country with new food, language, and customs.
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After eight long months of preparation and planning, my family
finally moved to the US— a country with new food, language, and customs.
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NOTE: Em-dashes can be written either with one
space on either side of the dash, or no spaces.
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NOTE: For compound words or phrases, be sure to
use the shorter hyphen (-), rather than the long em-dash.
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Sample Email #4
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Dear Emily,
I would like to invite you to our all-school Cultural Fair next month. (“All-school” is a linked compound word.) There
will be traditional dance performances, music, and food from Korea, China,
France, and the Philippines—*vegetarian and vegan options will be available
as well. Doesn’t
For your information, I have attached the festival schedule.
My last day of school
Have a wonderful day!
Cheers,
*Either parentheses or an em-dash is appropriate in this sentence, as
the writer includes extra information at the end of the main clause.
** Because this sentence states a clear fact about the date of a
particular event, it is simpler and more concise to say “my last day of
school is May 21st.”
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